COLLECTING DATA: Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. Depending upon your plans, you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations. Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical issues in relation to the participants and the researcher: - Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a researcher become participants of the study. - Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code of conduct, is a researcher.

DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS: Processing and analyzing data involves a number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner that they answer the research questions (objectives). The Data Processing operations are: 1. Editing – This is the process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. 2. Classification – This is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved a) Classification according to attributes: Here, data is analyzed on the basis of common characteristics which can either be: i) Descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. ii) Numerical such as weight, height, income etc. Such classification can be either: • Simple classification: where we consider only one attribute, and divide the universe into two classes – one class consisting of items possessing the given attribute, and the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute.

Another convenient feature of the FGT class of poverty measures is that they can be disaggregated for population subgroups and the contribution of each subgroup to national poverty can be calculated. Although the FGT measure provides an elegant unifying framework for measures of poverty, it leaves unanswered the question of the best value of . The measures of poverty depth and poverty severity provide information complementary to the incidence of poverty. It might be that some groups have a high poverty incidence but low poverty gap (when numerous members are just below the poverty line), while other groups have a low poverty incidence but a high poverty gap for those who are poor (when relatively few members are below the poverty line but with extremely low levels of consumption). The Table below provides an example from Madagascar

Describing Poverty: Poverty Profiles What is a Country Poverty Profile? A country poverty profile sets out the major facts on poverty and inequality, and then examines the pattern of poverty to see how it varies by geography (by region, urban or rural, mountains or plains, and so on), by community characteristics (for example, in communities with and without a school), and by household characteristics (for example, by education of household head or by household size). Hence, a poverty profile is a comprehensive poverty comparison, showing how poverty varies across subgroups of society. A well-presented poverty profile can be very informative and extremely useful in assessing how the sectoral or regional pattern of economic change is likely to affect aggregate poverty. It uses basic techniques such as tables and graphs. For example, regional poverty comparisons are important for targeting development programs to poorer areas. A study of poverty in Cambodia showed that headcount poverty rates were highest in the rural sector and lowest in Phnom Penh in 1999

Poverty Monitoring and Evaluation A poverty monitoring and evaluation system is required to determine whether a countrys overall poverty reduction strategy, and its main components, is effective. Poverty Monitoring Challenges The first challenge in monitoring progress toward poverty reduction is to: • Identify the goals that the strategy is designed to achieve, such as eradicate hunger or halve poverty within a decade. • Select the key indicators that measure progress toward the goals for example the proportion of individuals consuming less than 2,100 Calories per day, or the proportion of households living on less than a dollar a day. • Set targets, which quantify the level of the indicators that are to be achieved by a given date, for example reduce by half the number of households living on less than a dollar a day by the year 2030

Poverty and Environment What is the Environment? The term environment’ used narrowly refers to green issues concerned with nature such as pollution control, biodiversity and climate change. Use more broadly, it includes issues such as drinking water and sanitation provision (often known as the brown agenda). Neefjes (2000, p. 2) uses the term in a broad sense, referring to the environment as a vehicle for analyzing and describing relationships between people and their surroundings, now and in the future. What is the linkage between Poverty and Environment? The simplistic cyclical relationship between environment and poverty is where poverty causes environmental destruction and this causes poverty.

What is environment? The surrounding. It is a complex of many factors that interact not only with the organism but also among themselves. The physical-chemical and biological components of the environment are of great importance to an ecologist.

Soil is the upper layer of the earth’s crust or surface. Different vegetation types occur on different soil types. Soil types are closely related to species distribution and community structure. Specifically, species diversity is linked to soil composition, stratification and soil formation.

Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Trilobita (Trilobitomorpha): trilobites (extinct) Subphylum Chelicerata: chelicerates Class Merostomata: horseshoe crabs Class Pycnogonida: sea spiders Class Arachnida: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, etc. Subphylum Crustacea: crustaceans Class Malacostraca (orders: Isopoda, Amphipoda, Decapoda and Stomatopoda) Class Branchiopoda: brine shrimp, water fleas (Daphnia) Class Copepoda:copepods Class Cirripedia: barnacles Class Ostracoda: seed shrimps Subphylum Uniramia: uniramians Class Diplopoda: millipedes Class Chilopoda: centipedes Class Pauropoda: pauropods Class Symphyla: symphylans Class Insecta: insects --- (subphylum Hexapoda

Identification; assigning a plant to a particular group The identification of plant specimen is its determination of being identical with or similar to another already known plant. A character is any property of plant that can be used to record similarities or differences between individuals Identification characters are divided into two: Endormophic characters – internal features used for identification palynology; anatomy; cytology; phytochemicals; genotypes/semantids Exomorphic characters- external features used for identification Morphological characters are those that deal with external form and structure of plants; they include growth habit, leaf, surface coverings, flower, inflourescence, fruits etc

One of the largest, highly diverse and widely distributed groups in the animal kingdom Very abundant - numbers extremely high (more than 60,000 described species (with an estimated 500,000 more still undescribed) Habitat - both aquatic and terrestrial (many free-living & parasitic)

Blood is a circulating fluid tissue well developed in reptiles, birds and mammals. Blood consists of two components. These are: a) Blood cells. These are also known as the formed elements. The cells make up about 45 percent of blood. This fraction of blood is known as packed cell volume (PCV) or the hematocrit value of blood. b) Plasma. This is the liquid part of blood that makes about 55 percent of blood.

The purpose of the manual is to guide Counsel on general methods of legislative drafting. Further, it is intended to serve as a ready reference and guide to legislative drafting in addition to published works on the subject. The manual sets out uniform legislative drafting standards and principles to be applied by Counsel in the National Assembly.

ADDITION REACTIONS TO POLARIZED MULTIPLE BONDS The electron flow paths for addition The AdE2 Reaction: Electron Flow Pathways AE + A N

BASIC RULES FOR MECHANISM STUDIES IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Carbon has 4 bonds – it is neutral. If it has 3 bonds, then look at number of electrons. None – positive - carbocation 1 electron – no charge – free radical 2 electrons – negative - carbanion Curly arrow : Atom where the arrow comes from – becomes less negative or positive. If it was an anion – atom becomes neutral

Many authorities predict that applications of nanotechnologies will ultimately pervade virtually every aspect of life and will enable dramatic advances to be realized in most areas of communication, health, manufacturing, materials and knowledge-based technologies. Even if this is only partially true, there is an obvious need to provide industry and research with suitable tools to assist the development, application and communication of the technologies. One essential tool in this armoury will be the harmonization of the terminology and definitions used in order to promote their common understanding and consistent usage. This terminology includes terms that are either specific to the sector covered by the title or are used with a specific meaning in the field of nanotechnology. It is one of a series of terminology PASs covering many different aspects of nanotechnologies. This terminology attempts not to include terms that are used in a manner consistent with a definition given in the Oxford English Dictionary [1], and terms that already have well established meanings and to which the addition of the prefix “nano” changes only the scale to which they apply but does not otherwise change their meaningThe multidisciplinary nature of nanotechnologies can lead to confusion as to the precise meaning of some terms because of differences in usage between disciplines. Users are advised that, in order to support the standardization of terminology, this PAS provides single definitions wherever possible

Nanoparticles are defined by the worldwide federation of national standards bodies, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as nanoobjects with all external dimensions in the nanoscale, where the lengths of the longest andshortest axes of nanoobjects do not differ significantly . Though nanoscale is basically ranged from 1 to 100 nm, nanoparticles can be categorized by three size ranges: larger than 500 nm, between 100 and 500 nm, and between 1 and 100 nm (European Commission, 2010). With respect to the size and the size distribution, nanoparticles may exhibit size-related intensive properties. If they are small enough to confine their electrons, they produce quantum effects and exhibit unexpected properties, for example, gold nanoparticles appear red in solution (see, for instance, Eustis and El-Sayed, 2006), and melt at much lower temperatures than that in slab form (Buffat and Borel, 1976). The high surface-area-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles provides the significant changes in properties related to contact/surface area, such as catalytic (Astruc, 2008),surface-enhanced plasmon resonance (Melaine et al., 2015), etc.

An elimination is the loss of two atoms or groups from a molecule, which will typically result in the formation of a new bond.

Lewis Structures A Lewis structure shows what atoms are connected to each other, and it shows where the electrons in the molecule reside. Single bonds between two atoms are represented with a single line, signifying two shared electrons; double bonds are represented with a double line, signifying four shared electrons; and triple bonds are represented with a triple line, signifying six shared. Nonbonding electrons are indicated with dots on the atoms on which they reside.

Nanoscience is the emerging science of objects that are intermediate in size between the largest molecules and the smallest structures that can be fabricated by current photolithography; that is, the science of objects with smallest dimensions ranging from a few nanometers to less than 100 nanometers.[1–3] In chemistry, this range of sizes has historically been associated with colloids, micelles, polymer molecules, phase-separated regions in block copolymers, and similar structures—typically, very large molecules, or aggregates of many molecules. More recently, structures such as buckytubes, silicon nanorods, and compound semi conductor quantum dots have emerged as particularly interesting classes of nanostructures. In physics and electrical engineering, nanoscience is most often associated with quantum behavior, and the behavior of electrons and photons in nanoscale structures. Biology and biochemistry also have a deep interest in nanostructures as components of the cell; many of the most interesting structures in biology—from DNA and viruses to subcellular organelles and gap junctions—can be considered as nanostructures.