It’s the examination of the inside of the bladder. Ureters renoscopy ( URS)is examination of the upper urinary tract(ureter and renal pelvis and calyes. A cystoscope is a long thin optical instrument with eye piece at one end a rigid or flexible tube in the middle and the tiny lens and the light at the other end of the tube the cystoscope is inserted into patient’s urethra and the small lens magnify the inner lining of the urethra and bladder allowing to see the hollow bladder .

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are administered to patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis(RA) mainly to offer symptomatic relief (reduce inflammation and pain) hence preserve function

Factors that influence urine production include Glomerular filtration Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion. Many substances increase urine production by the normal kidney including dietary components such as water, osmotically active salts and sugars and xanthines

Errors are an integral part of human life. According to the National Coordinating Council for Medication Error Reporting and Prevention, a medication error is defined as "any preventable event that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the medication is in the control of the healthcare professional, patient, or consumer,”. Such events may be related to professional practice, healthcare products, procedures, and systems, including prescribing; order communication; product labeling, packaging and catalogue; compounding; dispensing; distribution; administration; education; monitoring; and use

Hypertension is a sustained state of higher-than normal BP that can lead to blood vessel damage and damage to small vessels in the organs. A decrease in blood flow to the kidneys triggers the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, by which the blood vessels constrict and water is retained. This activity increases blood pressure and restores blood flow to the kidney

The nervous system controls the body, analyzes external stimuli, and integrates internal and external responses to stimuli. • The neuron, comprising a cell body, dendrites and an axon, is the functional unit of the nervous system. • Dendrites route information to the nerve, and axons take the information away.

Respiratory muscles are stimulated to contract by the respiratory center in the medulla. • The medulla receives input from chemoreceptors to increase the rate and/or depth of respiration to maintain homeostasis in the body. • Drugs that affect the respiratory system work to keep the airways open and gases moving efficiently

Safe nursing practice requires understanding the legal framework of health care. Understanding the legal implications of nursing practice demands critical reasoning skills to protect the patient’s rights and the nurse from liability. Society expects safe health care delivery, especially from nurses who are typically perceived as the most trusted profession. As patient care practice innovations and new health care technologies emerge, the principles of negligence and malpractice liability are being applied to challenging new situations. Nurses should not fear the law but instead practice nursing armed with the judgment skills that are the outcomes of informed critical thinking.

Ethics: The word ethics is derived from a Greek term `ethos’ which means customs, convention or the spirit of a community. The word can be used interchangeably with the term morals a Latin word, both of which refer to social customs regarding Nursing Ethics. Bioethics: This is the application of general ethical principles to healthcare. Bioethics and Nursing Ethics both deal with ethical issues in Clinical practice, Research, Allocation of resources and Policy formulation and implementation. Nursing Ethics This is a system of principles governing the conduct of a nurse. It deals with the relationship of the nurse to the patient, the patient’s family, associates and fellow nurses and society at large. Nursing Ethics is derived/ expressed through: the law, institutional policies/ practices, and policies of professional organizations and professional standards of care.

A newborn baby's first examination is a physical assessment that evaluates the baby's health and looks for any congenital abnormalities or disease. The exam is performed by a doctor or specialist midwife within the first 72 hours of birth