ESTIMATING, TENDERING& ENGINEERING SERVICES CONTRACTS

Institution TVET
Course DIPLOMA IN BUILDING...
Year 1st Year
Semester Unknown
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Definition of the term “Law” There is generally no acceptable definition of the word law. Different schools of Law define it differently. Some important definitions of law include: - 1. Woodrow Wilson, has defined law in the words “That portion of the established thought and habit which has gained distinct and formal recognition in the shape of uniform laws, backed by authority and power of government” 2. According to Holland, “A law is a general rule of external human action enforced by sovereign political authority” 3. In the words of Salmond, “Law is a body of principles recognized and applied by the state in the administration of justice”. 4. Law may also be defined as” a rule of human conduct, imposed upon and enforced among the members of a given state”. From the above definitions, we may conclude that law refers to “a set of rules or principles that govern the conduct of affairs in a given community at a given time, whereby machinery is provided for an aggrieved party to enforce his right in case any of these rules or principle is broken.
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Reactions of Alkyl halides
In this type of reaction, a nucleophile reacts with haloalkane (the substrate) having a partial positive charge on the carbon atom bonded to halogen. A substitution reaction takes place and halogen atom, called leaving group departs as halide ion. Since the substitution reaction is initiated by a nucleophile, it is called nucleophilic substitution reaction
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Substitution and Elimination Electron Flow Pathway
Path Limitations There are three requirements for the S N 2 reaction. In order to be pushed out, the leaving group must be at least fair, usually good. The nucleophile also must be reactive enough to push out the leaving group. Finally, the back side of the tetrahedral carbon attacked must be accessible to the nucleophile and not blocked by other groups.
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The SN2 reaction
The hydroxide ion is a good nucleophile since the oxygen atom has a negative charge and a pair of unshared electrons. The carbon atom is electrophilic since it is bound to a (more electronegative) halogen, which pulls electron density away from the carbon, thus polarizing the bond with carbon bearing partial positive charge and the halogen bearing partial negative charge. The nucleophile is attracted to the electrophile by electrostatic charges. The nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbon through donation of 2 electrons. Carbon can only have a maximum of 8 valence electrons, so as the carbon nucleophile bond is forming, then the carbon-leaving group bond must be breaking. Iodide is the leaving group since it leaves with the pair of electrons that once bound it to carbon.
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