For all engineering works it is required to know beforehand the probable cost of construction known as estimated cost. If the estimated cost is greater than the money available then attempts are made to reduce the cost by reducing the work or by changing the specifications. In preparing the estimate, the quantities of different items are calculated by simple maturation method and from these quantities the cost is calculated.

It is a bill of quantities that is organized according to trades in the order in which they appear in the building and a sum of it given. It is also called sectional bills of quantities because work is divided into sections in which they appear in the construction project such as excavation works, roofing, concreting, etc.

Cost incurred on site, factors, situations, and items that affect the cost of a project and are temporary in nature but assist in the smooth running of the project. They include hoarding, security, power, and water. They affect the overall cost of the works but cannot be attributed to any particular section of the works.

For the preparation of national and local exams, get the entire biology Form 3 notes. These biology form 3 notes are aggregated from the various high school approved text books, including KLB biology form 3, Finder biology form 3, etc.

Ngeli ni vikundi vya majina ya Kiswahili. Ngeli za nomino ni utaratibu unaotumika kuweka nomino katika matabaka au makundi yanayofanana.

Communication pathways refer to the guidelines used to ensure a common understanding of the expectations for communication. • Pathways of communication are established to meet requirement of organization and workforce. Developing Character, Skills and Competence 7/20/2024 5:33 PM 2 • Communication pathways involve ways of better engagement with colleagues and clients in an organization. • Through communication pathways, a more inclusive and diverse workplace is realized. • It is therefore important to establish internal communication arrangements on communication channels like messages, telephone calls and meetings among others. • Such arrangements create structured connections between the organizations and the employees.

TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIMES The following are some of various types of computer crimes: • Data Interception: This type is exclusive to network environment with teleprocessing activities in which the criminal may tap the signal sent to a computer from remote source. • Data Modification: Alteration, destruction, or erasing of data in the computer, usually done with desire to misallocate money or to cover up management incompetence. • Theft of Software/piracy: Taking or copying data, regardless of whether it is protected by other laws, e.g., copyright, privacy, etc. The cause of this may be for profit purpose or for private use

ENERGY SOURCES All of these different sources of energy are used to produce electricity. Types of Sources of Energy These can be broken down into renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Renewable Energy Source Renewable energy sources are natural resources that can be harnessed to generate energy in an environmentally sustainable way. These sources are replenished by natural processes and are considered a clean and green alternative to fossil fuels. Some of the most common renewable energy sources include: The major types or sources of renewable energy are: i) Solar Energy: Solar energy is harnessed from the sun's radiation using photovoltaic (PV) cells to generate electricity or solar thermal systems to produce heat for various applications. Solar panels are commonly used to capture sunlight and convert it into electricity for residential, commercial, and industrial use. ii) Wind Energy: Wind turbines capture the kinetic energy of moving air and convert it into electricity. Wind farms consist of multiple turbines and are often located in areas with consistent wind patterns. Wind energy is a significant source of electricity generation in many regions. iii) Hydroelectric Power: Hydroelectric power is generated by capturing the energy of flowing or falling water, typically in dams and reservoirs. The movement of water turns turbines, which produce electricity. Hydropower is a well-established and widely used renewable energy source. iv) Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is derived from the heat within the Earth's core. It is typically harnessed by tapping into underground reservoirs of hot water or steam, which can be used for heating buildings, generating electricity, or providing direct-use applications like greenhouse heating. v) Biomass Energy: Biomass energy is produced from organic materials, such as wood, agricultural residues, and organic waste. These materials can be burned directly for heat or converted into biofuels like bioethanol and biodiesel for transportation and electricity generation. vi) Ocean Energy: Ocean energy includes various forms of energy generated from the movement of tides, waves, and ocean currents. It is an emerging and still-evolving source of renewable energy with the potential for sustainable power generation near coastlines. vii)Tidal Energy: Tidal energy is generated by the rise and fall of tides in coastal areas. Turbines placed in tidal streams can capture the kinetic energy of the moving water and convert it into electricity. viii)Wave Energy: Wave energy is harnessed from the up and down movement of ocean waves. Various technologies, including oscillating water columns and point absorbers, can capture wave energy and convert it into electricity. ix) Algal Biofuel: Algae can be cultivated and converted into biofuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, offering a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.

Capacitors are passive electronic components that store and release electrical energy. They consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. When a voltage is applied across the capacitor's plates, an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to accumulate on one plate and negative charge on the other. This stored energy can be released when the circuit requires it, maintaining current flow and stabilizing voltage

What is an electronic component? • Electronic components are the building blocks of electronic circuits, each serving a specific function. • There are two types: a) Passive components: Passive components are electronic components that do not require an external power source to operate and cannot introduce power into a circuit. Instead, they can only consume, store, or dissipate electrical energy. Passive components typically influence the voltage, current, or signal flow in an electronic circuit without amplifying or controlling it. Examples: Resistors, Capacitors, Diodes, Inductors. b) Active components: An active component is an electronic component that relies on a source of energy and can inject power into a circuit. Active components are capable of controlling the flow of electricity in a circuit and typically require an external power source to operate. They can amplify signals, process data, and perform other complex functions. Example: Transistors, Integrated Circuits or ICs, Logic Gates.